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The cost contingency which is included in a cost estimate, bid, or budget may be classified as to its general purpose, that is what it is intended to provide for. For a class 1 construction cost estimate, usually needed for a bid estimate, the contingency may be classified as an estimating and contracting contingency.
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Transport costs sever the link between exchange rates and the prices of goods implied by the law of one price. As transport costs increase, the larger the range of exchange rate fluctuations. The same is true for official trade restrictions because the customs fees affect importers' profits in the same way as shipping fees.
If the biased sample variance (the second central moment of the sample, which is a downward-biased estimate of the population variance) is used to compute an estimate of the population's standard deviation, the result is = = (¯).
For two opposite charges, denoting the location of the positive charge of the pair as r + and the location of the negative charge as r −: = + = (+) = (+) =, showing that the dipole moment vector is directed from the negative charge to the positive charge because the position vector of a point is directed outward from the origin to that point.
Using Big Bang models, it is possible to calculate the expected concentration of the isotopes helium-4 (4 He), helium-3 (3 He), deuterium (2 H), and lithium-7 (7 Li) in the universe as ratios to the amount of ordinary hydrogen. [38] The relative abundances depend on a single parameter, the ratio of photons to baryons.
As an example of a low estimate, combining NASA's star formation rates, the rare Earth hypothesis value of f p · n e · f l = 10 −5, [61] Mayr's view on intelligence arising, Drake's view of communication, and Shermer's estimate of lifetime:
An odds ratio (OR) is a statistic that quantifies the strength of the association between two events, A and B. The odds ratio is defined as the ratio of the odds of event A taking place in the presence of B, and the odds of A in the absence of B. Due to symmetry, odds ratio reciprocally calculates the ratio of the odds of B occurring in the presence of A, and the odds of B in the absence of A.
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